____.)
a) Are fungi eukaryotic or prokaryotic? eukaryotic
b) In terms of fungal cellular structure, the cell wall is composed of ________ chitin_________.
c) Give an example of a unicellular fungus.
yeast
d) Describe the structure of multicellular fungi.
They are arranged as filaments of cells with one or more nuclei per cell. Long chains of cells comprise hyphae while multiple hyphae are called mycelia.
e) In terms of nutrition, fungi are considered _________heterotrophs________ . What does this mean?
They derive nutrition from external sources (i.e. they cannot make their own food like autotrophs such as plants).
f) Specifically, how do fungi obtain their nutrients?
Hyphae cells secrete digestive enzymes that breakdown organic material that is exterior to the body of the fungus.

____.) What are two general categories of fungi? What is the difference between the two?
1. saprobes - secrete enzymes and absorb food from dead organic material
2. parasites - secrete enzymes and absorb food from organic material from living organisms

____.) Fungi do not have a _________multicellular embryo________ . In this regard, fungi are more closely related to ________animals_________ than to ________plants_________ .

____.)
a) What kingdom do algae belong to?
Protista
b) What specific group of green algae are most likely the ancestors to plants?
Charophyceans
c) What are 11 traits that seem to corroborate part b?
1) morphology of chloroplasts is similar in that thylakoid membranes are stacked in grana
2) chloroplasts have the pigments: chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids
3) perixisomes are in close association with the chloroplasts helping to reduce photorespiration
4) excess carbohydrates are stored as starch
5) cell walls contain much cellulose
6) shape of the protein that synthesizes cellulose is the same (rose-shaped)
7) have same method of cell division
8) have same method of flagellum attachment
9) morphology of sperm is similar
10) have a sporic life cycle
11) presence of gametangia

d) What are two major distinctions between plants and the group described in part b?
1. Plants have a multicellular embryo.
2. Plants have placental transfer cells.

____.) Complete the following chart by placing an X where the following characteristics apply to the groups of organisms listed:

	Multicellular Embryo	Vascular Tissues	Seeds	Flowers
Green Algae Ancestors	.	.	.	.
Mosses	X	.	.	.
Ferns	X	X	.	.
Gymnosperms	X	X	X	.
Angiosperms	X	X	X	X

____.) List 9 adaptions plants developed for life on land.
1) cuticle - waxy coating
2) stomata
3) development of vascular tissue (xylem and phloem)
4) development of roots
5) development of stems
6) development of leaves
7) development of pollen grains
8) origin of seeds
9) origin of flowers

____.) In plants, when a diploid cell undergoes mitosis, it produces two diploid cells .
a) When a haploid cell undergoes mitosis, it produces _______________2 haploid cells ______________.
b) When a diploid cell undergoes meiosis, it produces _______________4 haploid cells _____________.
c) Formation of gametes results from mitosis or meiosis?
mitosis
d) Sexual reproduction in plants requires mitosis or meiosis?
BOTH!
e) In the sporic life cycle, the gametophyte is _________haploid_________ and produces ________gametes_________ which are haploid by the process of __________mitosis_______ .
f) In the sporic life cycle, the sporophyte is __________diploid________ and produces _______spores__________ which are haploid by the process of _______meiosis__________ .

____.) List 8 general characteristics of mosses.
1) nonvascular (no xylem or phloem)
2) have cuticle to prrevent loss of moisture
3) have stomata to regulate gas exchange
4) no true leaves, stems, or roots
5) sperm swim to egg
6) most species are terrestrial
7) do not grow more than 5 to 10 cm
8) are green (have chlorophyll)

____.)
a) Draw a diagram of a fern. Label the following in your diagram: frond, roots, blade, rhizome, pinna, stipe.

b) What is a sorus and what are its components? Draw a diagram to illustrate.

____.) In the sporic life cycle of a fern, a sporophyte which is _________diploid________ undergoes _________meiosis________ to produce 4 haploid ________spores_________ which eventually are taken by the wind and land on trees and soil. They germinate, grow, and undergo _________mitosis ________ to produce a gametophyte which is ________haploid_________. A female gametophyte has gametangia called _________archegonium________ whereas a male gametophyte has gametangia called _________antheridium________. The gametangia of the gametophytes produce ________gametes_________ which are _________haploid________ via the process of _________mitosis________ . These unite to form a zygote which is ________diploid_________. The zygote grows and matures by means of ________mitosis_________ to become a mature sporophyte and the cycle begins again!

____.) List 8 general characteristics of ferns.
1) 12,000 extant species
2) have vascular tissue
3) have true roots, stems, and leaves
4) sperm swims to egg
5) DO NOT produce seeds
6) sporophyte and gametophyte are separate plant bodies
7) sporophyte is much bigger than gametophyte
8) sporophyte can range from a few cm to 30 meters

____.) Compare and contrast mosses and ferns.
Similarities
- have gametophyte and sporophyte plant bodies
- have specialized cells (spore mother cells) in sporophyte that undergo meiosis to produce haploid spores
- homosporous (all spores produced by a species are the same shape and size)
- haploid spores germinate and grow into gametophyte
- gametophyte produces egg and sperm via mitosis

Differences
- the sporophyte of the moss depends on the gametophyte for most of its food
- the gametophyte stage is dominant in mosses
- the sporophyte stage is dominant in ferns

____.) Match each structure to the correct function:
_____ roots e
_____ seeds a
_____ secondary growth of stems d
_____ cuticle b
_____ pollen grain c

a. dispersal of offspring
b. reduce water loss
c. protection of male gametophyte
d. increase in diameter
e. absorb water and minerals

____.) List at least three differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Eukaryotic Characteristics
a. membrane-enclosed nucleus
b. mitochondria
c. chloroplast
d. endomembrane system
e. cytoskeleton
f. 9+2 flagella
g. multiple chromosomes consisting of linear DNA molecules compactly arranged with proteins
h. 2N stages in life cycle
i. mitosis/meiosis and sex

Prokaryotic Characteristics
a. smaller in size
b. no membrane-enclosed nucleus
c. generally one small chromosome which is circular
d. relatively few number of genes
e. cell division in NOT mitotic

____.) What is thought to be the ancestor of modern protists, plants, fungi and animals?
Ancient Protist

____.) The increase in complexity and organization of prokaryotes followed three separate trends. What are these three trends?
a. move toward multicellular prokaryotes such as filamentous cyanobacteria with specialized cells
b. evolution of bacterial communities in which species benefited from the metabolic specialties of other species
c. trend to compartmentalize different functions within a cell that led to eukaryotic cells

____.) Define endosymbiont.
term used to describe a cell that lives within another cell, termed the host cell

____.) Discuss the endosymbiotic theory. Give some evidence to support this theory.
Refer to the appropriate pages in the textbook.

____.) Fill in the following summary table of protist characteristics

____.) What are three major categories of Protists?
a. photosynthetic, plant-like protist = algae b. ingestive, animal-like protist = protozoans c. absorptive, fungus-like protist

____.) Which of the following phyla are animal-like protists (Protozoa = P), plant-like protists (Algae = A), or fungus-like protist (F). Make sure you memorize all of these phyla and their major characteristics. Making note cards is a good tool to begin this memorization process.

____.) You discovered a new unicellular organism while diving off of the coast of Australia. You accidentally found this organism while collecting algae for your algology course. You discovered this organism has a calcareous shell, but could move through cytoplasmic strands extending through the pores in the shell. What phylum might you expect this organism to belong? What test today would you think you should perform to determine this organism’s closest relative?
Phylum Foraminifera You may want to use a number of molecular techniques, but you would certainly want to examine the rRNA and compare this to other foraminiferans.

____.) Define the following terms:
a) Autotrophic = a term used to describe an organism that obtains organic food molecules without eating other organisms; they use energy from the sun or from oxidation of inorganic substances to make organic molecules from inorganic ones (eg. carbon dioxide)
b) Phototrophic = a term used to describe an organism that uses light as energy to drive the synthesis of organic compounds from carbon dioxide
c) Chemotrophic = a term used to describe an organism that uses energy obtained by oxidizing inorganic substances to make organic molecules from carbon dioxide
d) Heterotrophic = a term used to describe an organism that obtains organic food molecules by eating other organisms or their by-products
e) Sporophyte = the multicellular diploid form in organisms undergoing alternation of generations that results from a union of gametes and that meiotically produces haploid spores that grow into the gametophyte generation
f) Gametophyte = the multicellular haploid form in organisms undergoing alternation of generations, which mitotically produces haploid gametes that unite and grow into sporophyte generation
g) isogamy = a condition in which male and female gametes are morphologically indistinguishable (Anisogamy is where gametes look different)
h) oogamy = a condition in which male and female gametes differ, such that a small, flagellated sperm fertilizes a large non-motile egg
i) syngamy = the process of cellular union during fertilization
j) heteromorphic = a condition in the life cycle of all modern plants in which the sporophyte and gametophyte generations differ in morphology
k) isomorphic = alternating generations in which the sporophytes and gametophytes look alike, although they differ in chromosome number

____.) Compare the following aspects of the life cycles of plasmodial slime molds, cellular slime molds, and water molds.

____.) Discuss the differences between the 5 and 8 Kingdom System. Which Kingdoms are included in each system?
The five-kingdom system involves the 5 traditional kingdoms of Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. An eight-kingdom system exists in which, in addition to the Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia kingdoms, Monera is subdivided into Bacteria and Archaea kingdoms and the Protista are divided into Archaezoa, Chromista, and Protista kingdoms.

____.) What does alternation of generation mean?
The alternation of multicellular haploid forms (gametophyte) and multicellular diploid forms (sporophyte).

____.) Discuss the life cycle of a cellular slime mold (Dictyostelium).
Refer to the appropriate pages in the textbook.

____.) Discuss the life cycle of Laminaria. What phylum is this organism in?
Refer to the appropriate pages in the textbook. Laminaria is a brown algae in phylum Phaeophyta. It is a seaweed used in soups in Japan and Korea

____.) What is the colonial protist that many zoologists believe is related to the ancestor of animals?
A choanoflagellate

____.) Matching

____.) Chloroplasts are descendents of B
a. green plants
b. photosynthetic prokaryotes that became endosymbionts within larger cells
c. aerobic heterotrophic bacteria that entered larger cells as prey or parasites
d. facultative anaerobe which entered a larger cell as a parasite

____.) Mitochondria developed from C
a. green plants
b. photosynthetic prokaryotes that became endosymbionts within larger cells
c. aerobic heterotrophic bacteria that entered larger cells as prey or parasites
d. facultative anaerobe which entered a larger cell as a parasite

____.) The endomembrane system of eukaryotic cells was thought to evolve by D
a. up regulation of membrane proteins
b. an increase in the intake of lipids which are then incorporated into the membrane of prokaryotic cells.
c. an increase in the intake of lipids which are then incorporated into the membrane of a eukaryotic cell
d. invagination of the plasma membrane

____.) Evidence from rRNA sequencing suggest that this group of eukaryotic organisms are most closely related to prokaryotes B
a. Archaebacteria
b. Archezoa
c. Chromista
d. Plantae

____.) Which of the following is one of the several symbiotic flagellates which inhabit the gut of the termite? A
a. Trichonyinpha
b. Trypanosoma
c. Plasmodium
d. Dictyostelium

____.) Which of the following is not correctly paired? D
a. Actinopoda—Heliozoans, Radiozoans
b. Ciliata — Paramecium, Stentor
c. Zoomastigophora—Trichonympha, Trypanosoma
d. Apicomplexa—Plasmodium, Anopholes

____.) The organism which is the causative agent of African sleeping sickness is in which of the following phyla? C
a. Apicomplexa
b. Ciliophora
c. Zoomastigophora

____.) The Chlorophyta are believed to be the ancestors of plants because D
a. They are the only multicellular algal protists.
b. They do not have flagellated gametes.
c. They are oogamous and heteromorphic
d. They are similar in chloroplasts and pigment composition
e. The exhibit alternation of generations.

____.) Examples of mutualistic symbiotic relationships include B
a. dinoflagellates producing red tides
b. termites and zooflagellates
c. sporozoans in their multiple hosts
d. amoeboid cellular slime molds that congregate to form a fruiting body
e. isomorphic sporophyte and gametophyte generations.

____.) A student collected a flask of pond water and placed it near a window. A brownish-green scum collected on the side of the flask facing the light. When the flask was turned around, the scum moved to the side facing the window. Which of the following phyla are most likely represented in this pond scum? B
a. Zoomastigophora and Ciliophora b. Chrysophyta and Euglenophyta c. Chlorophyta and Phaeophyta d. Euglenophvta and Acrasiomycota e. Phacophyta and Bacillariaophyta

____.) True of False. If the statement is false then correct the statement so that it is a true statement. False- Nearly all protists are aerobic and use mitochondria for cellular respiration
a. Nearly all protists are anaerobic using mainly glycolysis to obtain their energy.
b. All protists can reproduce asexually. True
c. All protists are unicellular and simple in structure and function. False- There are some multicellular protist. At the cellular level these organisms are highly complex.

____.) Different genes are expressed at different stages of the life cycle of the malaria-causing apicomplexan Plasmodium, which causes different proteins to appear on the outer coat of the infecting cells. Sporozoites are injected by mosquitoes and travel in the blood to liver cells, where they continue their life cycle. Researchers discovered that the sporozoites produce protein coats that are sloughed off and continuously replaced. How do the continual sloughing and replacing of the protein coat work as an adaptive mechanism to prevent immune destruction of the sporozoite before it gets inside the liver cell, where it is protected from blood-borne antibodies?
The immune system produces antibodies against the proteins found on the surface coat of the sporozoite. Antibody production increases over fourteen days. The antibodies bind to the surface “non-self’ protein leading to the destruction of the sporozoite, in order to evade the host immune system the sporozoite continues to change its protein coat. The immune system thus must start from scratch making antibodies against the new proteins, as antibodies are specific for a particular antigen (eg Protein). If you have interest in this subject, take Immunobiology!

____.) Give some key evidence that led scientist to believe that green algae (Chlorophyta) gave rise to modern terrestrial plants.
a. Homologous chloroplasts - Only green algae match plants in having chlorophyll b and beta-carotene as accessory pigments. Chloroplasts of green algae are also similar to plant chloroplasts in having their thylakoid membranes tacked as grana.
b. Biochemical Similarity - Cellulose is a structural component in the cell walls of most green algae and also found in plant cell walls.
c. Similarity in mechanisms of mitosis and cytokinesis.
d. Similarity in sperm ultrastructure
e. Genetic relationship - the rRNA of green algae and plants are similar
Note: The green algae closest to plants are called charophytes

____.) What is the major problem for terrestrial plants? Give several adaptations of these terrestrial plants that overcame this problem.
Major problem = preventing desiccation

Adaptations
a. cuticle
b. regulation of stomata
c. plants produce gametes within gametangia—organs having protective jackets of non-reproductive cells that prevent the gametes from drying out during development. The embryo is retained and nourished for some time within the gametangia on the adult plant = embryophyte condition
d. In some groups of vascular plants additional adaptations to protect the plant from desiccation is the evolution of seeds, replacement of flagellated sperm with pollen and increasing dominance of the 2N sporophyte in the alternation of generation.

____.) Draw a generalized scheme of alternation of generation.
Refer to the appropriate pages in the textbook.

____.) How did alternation of generations evolve in the ancestors of plants?
Refer to the appropriate pages in the textbook.

____.) Discuss the four major periods of plant evolution. What was the main advantage of the adaptations found in each of these four periods?
Refer to the appropriate pages in the textbook.
a. Became terrestrial, but non-vascular and has flagellated sperm thus reproduction is dependent of water. (eg. Bryophytes = mosses) b. Vascular tissue evolved. Plants were still seedless. This adaptation allowed plants to be taller and also provided support. (eg. Pterophyta = ferns, and fern allies) c. Seeds evolved which further protected the embryos (eg. Coniferophyta = conifers, really all gymnosperms) d. Radiation of flowers — allowed the plants to have more successful reproduction. Some angiosperms have specific pollinators. Remember that insects and some mammals (eg. Bats) coevolved with flowers.

____.) The evolution of plants shows a trend of increasing adaptation to a terrestrial habitat. List the characteristics that were novel adaptations for the following major plant groups.

____.) What is an epiphyte?
a plant that nourishes itself, but grows on the surface of another plant for support, usually on the branches of trunks of tropical trees.

____.) In vascular plants, the sporophyte/gametophyte is the dominant generation. This contrasts to the bryophytes in which the sporophyte/gametophyte is the dominant generation.
In vascular plants, the *sporophyte* is the dominant generation. This contrasts to the bryophytes in which the *gametophyte* is the dominant generation.

____.) What are the two conducting tissues of the vascular system?
Xylem and phloem

____.) Use the table below to compare the reproduction of some major plant groups.
Refer to the appropriate pages in the textbook.

____.) Define cross-pollination. What is an advantage of cross-pollination?
Cross-pollination = the transfer of pollen from flowers of one plant to flowers of another plant of the same species. Stamens and carpals of a single flower may mature at different times, or organs may be arranged within a flower that self-pollination is unlikely.
Advantage = increases genetic variability: this is important in adapting to an environment and also in surviving quick changes of an environment.

____.) Double fertilization is a characteristic of angiosperms. What is the function of double fertilization?
One sperm nucleus unites with the egg forming a 2N zygote. The other sperm nucleus fuses with a fused pair of nuclei in the center cell of the embryo sac. This central cell now has a 3N (triploid) nucleus which gives rise to the endosperm which acts as a food source for the developing embryo.

____.) You observe an Anthophyta that in bloom has a yellow flower. This flower looks like a female wasp and is only visited by the male wasp of the same species, which is responsible for the pollination of this yellow flower. This is an example of what type of evolution? What would be an advantage of an angiosperm having one specific pollinator?
This is an example of Coevolution. The advantage is that the pollen of this flower is more likely to reach the anther of a flower of the same species.

____.) Matching

____.) The following are seedless vascular plants E
a. Bryophytes and Pterophytes
b. Sphenophytes and Bryophytes
c. Coniferophytes and Pterophvyes
d. Anthophytes and Coniferophytes
e. Sphenophytes and Pterophytes

____.) All of the following have a dominant sporophyte generation EXCEPT: E
a. Chlorophyta
b. Bryophyta
c. Pterophyta
d. Coniferophyta and Anthophyta
e. Both a and b

____.) Which division is NOT a gymnosperm? A
a. Anthophyta
b. Cycadophyta
c. Gnetophyta
d. Coniferophyta

____.) Which of the following in NOT an evolutionary trend in flower structure? C
a. Number of floral parts have become decreased
b. Floral parts have become fused
c. Symmetry has changed from bilateral to radial
d. The ovary has dropped to a position below the petals and sepals

____.) During the Carboniferous period, the dominant plants. which later formed the great coal beds, were mainly A
a. The giant lycopods. horsetails, and ferns
b. The conifers
c. The angiosperms
d. The charophytes
e. The bryophytes that dominated early swamps

____.) The male gametophyte of an angiosperm is the D
a. anther
b. embryo sac
c. microspore
d. germinated pollen grain
e. ovule

____.) Important terrestrial adaptations that evolved exclusively in seed plants include all of the following EXCEPT: B
a. Pollination by wind or animal instead of fertilization by swimming sperm
b. Transport of water through vascular tissue
c. Retention of the gametophyte plant within the sporophyte
d. Dispersal of new plants by seeds
e. Protection and nourishment of the embryo within the seed

____.) A land plant produces flagellated sperm and the dominant generation is diploid. The plant is most likely A
a. A fern
b. A moss
c. A conifer
d. A charophyte
e. A dicot

____.) Which of the following incorrectly pairs a sporophyte embryo with its food source? A
a. Pine embryo — endosperm in nucellus
b. Corn embryo — 3n endosperm tissue in seed
c. Moss embryo — archegonium and gametophyte plant
d. Fern embryo—female gametophyte surrounding archegonium
e. Lycopod embryo — subterranean gametophyte

____.) If you could take a time machine back to the Carboniferous period, which of the following scenarios would you most likely confront? C
a. Creeping mats of low-growing bryophytes
b. Fields of tall gasses swaying in the wind
c. Swamps dominated by large lycopods, horsetails, and ferns
d. Huge forests of naked-seed trees filling the air with pollen
e. The dominance of flowering plants

____.) True or False. If the statement is false correct that statement so that it is a true statement
a. There are no gymnosperms that exhibit a change in leaf color. False- Ginkgos (Division Ginkgophyta) are gynmosperms and leaves turn golden yellow in the fall.
b. All sporophyte generations are diploid? True- and also must be multicellular by definition
c. Bryophytes are terrestrial nonvascular plants. True
d. A fruit consists of an embryo, nutritive material, and a protective coat. False- change fruit to seed
e. Tracheids are wide, specialized cells arranged end to end for water transport and are found in angiosperms. False- change tracheid to vessel element

____.) Why do you think there is a trend toward sporophyte dominance in vascular plants?
UV radiation from the sun can cause many mutations of the genome. If the cells contain only one set of chromosomes as in the gametophyte and the UV damages a gene whose product is essential for survival, the cell will die. If the cell has two sets of chromosomes as in the sporophyte the mutation of the one allele would probably not be detrimental to the cell/plant as it still has another allele (on the chromosome) which could be activated. Note that this is only one hypothesis that has been proposed.

____.) Why are tropical rain forests being destroyed at such an alarming rate? What kinds of social, technological, and economic factors are responsible? Most forests in the northern developed countries have already been cut. Do the developed nations have a right to ask the southern developing nations to slow or top the destruction of their forests? Defend your answer. What kinds of benefits, incentives, programs might slow the assault of the rain forest?
This is a discussion question and can and has been debated for years.

____.) Plants have coexisted with parasitic organisms such as certain bacteria and fungi for millions of years. Defensive adaptations include many plant chemicals that inhibit the growth of these pathogens. How might these chemicals be useful to humans?
These plant chemicals can be used as potential antibiotics and are also useful in the production of pesticides (eg. Insecticides. fungicide. etc.) Can you think of any more potential uses for these chemicals???